When Nepal was declared open defecation free (ODF) in 2019, the moment was celebrated as a national triumph—a culmination of nearly three decades of relentless campaigning, construction drives, donor-supported projects and a nationwide behavioural shift. After all, in the early 1990s, only around six percent of Nepali households reportedly had a toilet. For a country grappling with widespread rural poverty, traditional practices and limited infrastructure, the dream of universal sanitation seemed almost impossible.
In a widely shared 2013 World Bank blog, Johannes Zutt captured the spirit of the moment. Fresh off the announcement of Bhaktapur’s ODF declaration, he wrote, “Village by village, city by city, district by district, Nepal aims to be completely ODF by 2017. It is an inspiring example for other countries.” And for years, it truly did seem like Nepal was rewriting its public health story—one toilet at a time.
But a decade later, the cracks beneath that celebrated achievement are becoming painfully visible.
The Race That Built Toilets—But Not Always Sustainability
Nepal’s sanitation movement gained energy after the 1990s, fuelled by government policy, global development targets and generous international aid. The Water and Sanitation Strategy (1997) boldly declared that Nepal would achieve full sanitation coverage by 2017. District administrations launched aggressive campaigns. Toilet-building targets were tied to bureaucrats’ performance evaluations. Entire communities were pressured—sometimes aggressively—to build latrines in order to receive development entitlements.
It was a race. And in every race, some rules get bent.
The rush to declare districts ODF meant that many sub-standard pit latrines—temporary, unsafe and short-lived—were built simply to check a box. Several districts made headlines for announcing ODF status despite obvious gaps. But the momentum continued. Kaski became the first ODF district. Others followed swiftly, competing to be next on the list.
By 2019, Nepal proudly waved the national ODF certificate.
Yet the question now emerging is uncomfortable: Did Nepal build toilets faster than it built systems to sustain them?
When ODF Areas Still Lack Toilets
Two recent stories from state-run media offer sobering clarity.
A report from the Rastriya Samachar Samiti revealed that over 4,200 households in Lahan Municipality of Siraha—a region declared ODF in 2017—still do not have toilets. The municipality itself confirmed the data: 17% of its 24,700 households practice open defecation every day. Mayor Mahesh Prasad Chaudhary called it “worrying,” especially given the years of programs implemented in the area.
A similar story came from Karnali Province. According to an editorial in The Rising Nepal, three percent of Karnali households still lack toilets, and a staggering 30 percent of the toilets built during the ODF campaign are temporary or rudimentary, requiring urgent upgrades. Karnali, too, was declared ODF years ago.
The contradictions keep mounting.
The National Population and Housing Census 2021 found that 4.5 percent of Nepali households lack access to any toilet facility—a striking mismatch for a country declared ODF two years prior.
Is it a data discrepancy? A failure of local-level governance? Or evidence that the ODF movement, while successful in mobilization, faltered in long-term planning?
The truth is likely a blend of all three.
Urban Realities: Even Cities Lack Toilets
The toilet crisis is not confined to rural pockets. Urban Nepal, especially the Kathmandu Valley, faces a different but equally urgent problem: a near-absence of public toilets for an exploding population.
Rapid urbanization, inward migration and expanding informal settlements have placed enormous pressure on the Valley. The lack of accessible public toilets forces many—especially women, the elderly and workers in transit—to resort to open or unhygienic options.
The irony is stark: Nepal has more mobile phone users than toilets.
Experts Warn: ODF Was a Start, Not a Finish Line
Development and WASH expert Dr. Ganga Datta Nepal notes that although the campaign played a transformative role in changing public attitudes, the declaration of ODF zones often overshadowed deeper structural issues. Local governments, he argues, have focused too heavily on visible infrastructure like roads for quick political gain, pushing sanitation to the margins.
Moreover, the management of fecal sludge—a necessary second chapter after toilet construction—is beyond the technical and financial capacity of most local governments. Provincial support, Dr. Nepal stresses, is essential.
He highlights an important future direction: “waste to energy” and “waste to revenue”—approaches that treat sanitation as an opportunity rather than merely an obligation.
There Are Success Stories—But They Need Scaling
Some municipalities are emerging as role models.
Dhangadhi Sub-Metropolitan City is one: its fecal sludge treatment centre, nearing completion, is generating national attention. Waling and Lamahi have also demonstrated strong waste management leadership. And according to ENPHO, Nepal’s overall achievements in the WASH sector—95.5% sanitation coverage and 88.6% water supply coverage—are indeed commendable.
But progress is uneven. Vulnerable groups—Dalits, landless communities, disaster-prone families and informal settlers—continue to be left out of sanitation systems. Climate-driven disasters like floods and landslides further widen these gaps, often wiping out existing facilities and creating new barriers.
The Way Forward: From Declarations to Durable Solutions
Nepal’s sanitation journey is far from over. The country must now:
Strengthen local government capacity
Prioritize the poorest and most vulnerable communities
Upgrade temporary toilets into durable, safe structures
Invest in fecal sludge and solid waste management
Address the urban public toilet crisis
Ensure federal and provincial governments support local initiatives
The ODF movement changed habits, improved public health and set Nepal on a hopeful path. But without sustained focus, investment and inclusive planning, the country risks sliding backwards.
Sanitation is more than a toilet. It is dignity, health, safety and justice.
And as long as thousands of Nepalis still step outside every morning in search of a place to relieve themselves, Nepal’s ODF story remains unfinished.
 in 2019, but is it really? Data doesn’t say so. Find out more…){kind=link}